Difference between revisions of "Invasive Species of California"

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An [[Summaries of Environmental Topics on the Central Coast of California|environmental summary]] created by the [[ENVS 560/L Watershed Systems]] class at [[CSUMB]].
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This is a list of some of the well-known invasive species of California. The intention of this page is to educate the reader on the species' identification, their harm to ecosystems, and how to report sightings. This list does not contain all invasive species found in California. To see more on invasive species in California's Central Coast see specific Central Coast Region pages on: (1) [[Invasive Vertebrates of California's Central Coast Region|invasive vertebrates]], (2) [[Invasive Invertebrates of California's Central Coast Region|invasive invertebrates]], (3) [[Invasive Plants of California's Central Coast Region|invasive plants]], and (4) [[Invasive Fungi of California's Central Coast Region|invasive fungi]].
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==Aquatic Invasive Species==
 
==Aquatic Invasive Species==
  
 
===Quagga and Zebra Mussels===
 
===Quagga and Zebra Mussels===
  
Invasive quagga and zebra mussels are a major threat to freshwater ecosystems. They are small, clam-like creatures that reproduce rapidly and deplete nutrients in the water. They jeopardize power and water infrastructures, damage ecosystems and destroy recreational areas. The first confirmed record of Zebra mussels in California occurred at San Justo Reservoir on  January 10, 2008. Quagga and zebra mussels continue to spread and have infested 39 water bodies throughout the state. A map of all infested waters can be found [https://nas.er.usgs.gov/viewer/omap.aspx?SpeciesID=5 here]. The Invasive Species Program's goal is to reduce the negative effects of these two species of mussel in the waterways of California. The California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW) is involved in efforts to prevent the introduction of these species into the state, detect and respond to introductions when they occur, and prevent the spread of invasive species that have become established. Boaters are required to have their watercrafts inspected and cleaned at specific check stations around the state. For information on boating restrictions and inspections please contact the waterbody manager directly. <ref> https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Invasives</ref>
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Invasive quagga and zebra mussels are a major threat to freshwater ecosystems. They are small [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bivalvia bivalves] that: reproduce rapidly, deplete nutrients, jeopardize power and water infrastructures, damage ecosystems, and destroy recreational areas. The first confirmed record of Zebra mussels in California occurred at San Justo Reservoir on  January 10, 2008<ref name="muss"> https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/conservation/invasives/quagga-mussels</ref>. Quagga and zebra mussels continue to spread and have infested 39 water bodies throughout the state. A map of all infested waters can be found [https://nas.er.usgs.gov/viewer/omap.aspx?SpeciesID=5 here]. The [https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Invasives Invasive Species Program]'s goal is to reduce the negative effects of these two species of mussel in the waterways of California. The [[California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW)]] is involved in efforts to prevent the introduction of these species into the state, detect and respond to introductions when they occur, and prevent the spread of invasive species that have become established. Boaters are required to have their watercrafts inspected and cleaned at specific check stations around the state. For information on boating restrictions and inspections please contact the waterbody manager directly. <ref> https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Invasives</ref> See [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zebra_Mussels_at_Rossigh_Bay,_Lough_Erne_-_geograph.org.uk_-_366521.jpg Zebra/Quagga mussels here].
  
 
===New Zealand Mudsnails (''Potamopyrgus antipodarum'')===
 
===New Zealand Mudsnails (''Potamopyrgus antipodarum'')===
New Zealand Mudsnails (NZMS) are believed to have been introduced in Idaho and brought west from shipments of sportfish and their eggs. They are a vigorous invasive species and are becoming abundant in California's Central Coast. See more information at [[Invasive Invertebrates of the Central Coast]].
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New Zealand Mudsnails (NZMS) were likely introduced in Idaho and brought west from shipments of sportfish and their eggs. They are a vigorous invasive species and are becoming abundant in California's Central Coast. See more information at [[Invasive Invertebrates of the Central Coast]].
  
 
===Asian Clam (''Corbicula fluminea'')===
 
===Asian Clam (''Corbicula fluminea'')===
 
Common across the entire country, the Asian Clam has made its way to California's Central Coast. See [[Invasive Invertebrates of the Central Coast]] for more information.
 
Common across the entire country, the Asian Clam has made its way to California's Central Coast. See [[Invasive Invertebrates of the Central Coast]] for more information.
 
===Grass Carp (''Ctenopharyngodon idella'')===
 
===Grass Carp (''Ctenopharyngodon idella'')===
Grass Carp are the staple invasive fish in California <ref name="carp"> https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/conservation/invasives/species</ref>. In the 1960s, they were used for aquaculture, but were soon released into natural areas <ref name="oof"> https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Invasives/Species/Grass-Carp</ref>. Grass Carp prefer deep, warm water bodies <ref name="oof"/>. They have voracious appetites and will readily eat much of the vegetation in lentic water bodies. When the carp remove vegetation from the water bodies, there is less food for native fish, and the increased water clarity encourages [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algal_bloom algal blooms] which can kill everything in the water <ref name="oof"/>. Grass Carp also carry [https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.aspx?speciesID=2798 Asian tapeworms], which can harm and kill native fish species <ref> https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.aspx?speciesID=2798</ref>. Report sightings of the Grass Carp to the CDFW.
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Grass Carp are the staple invasive fish in California <ref name="carp"> https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/conservation/invasives/species</ref>. In the 1960s, they were used for aquaculture, but were soon released into natural areas <ref name="oof"> https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Invasives/Species/Grass-Carp</ref>. Grass Carp prefer deep, warm water bodies <ref name="oof"/>. They have voracious appetites and will readily eat much of the vegetation in lentic water bodies. When the carp remove vegetation from the water bodies, there is less food for native fish, and the increased water clarity encourages [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algal_bloom algal blooms] which can kill everything in the water <ref name="oof"/>. Grass Carp also carry [https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.aspx?speciesID=2798 Asian tapeworms], which can harm and kill native fish species <ref> https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.aspx?speciesID=2798</ref>. Report sightings of the Grass Carp to the [[California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW)| CDFW]]. See a [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Grass_Carp.jpg Grass Carp here].
  
 
==Plants==
 
==Plants==
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===Giant Reed (''Arundo donax'')===
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The Giant Reed was introduced to keep riparian areas stable, but they have become successful invasive species and kill off other plants. See more at [[Invasive Plants of the Central Coast]].
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===Iceplant (''Carpobrotus edulis'')===
 
===Iceplant (''Carpobrotus edulis'')===
Iceplant was introduced from Africa to help stabilize soil. It is common in California's Central Coast. See more at [[Invasive Plants of the Central Coast]].
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Iceplant was introduced from Africa to help stabilize the soil. It is common in California's Central Coast. See more at [[Invasive Plants of the Central Coast]].
  
 
===English/Common Ivy ''(Hedera helix)''===
 
===English/Common Ivy ''(Hedera helix)''===
The Common Ivy is a well-known invasive species, given the invasive rank of "high" from the [https://www.cal-ipc.org/plants/profile/hedera-helix-profile/ California Invasive Plant Council]. The ivy is known to grow rapidly and take nutrients before other native plants can <ref name="ivy"> https://www.calflora.org/cgi-bin/species_query.cgi?where-calrecnum=4023</ref>. The plant causes no major harm to humans ([https://www.calflora.org/cgi-bin/species_query.cgi?where-calrecnum=4023 minor dermatitis]), but competes with other plants by wrapping around them or growing above them. Saplings and young plants are at a disadvantage especially, because they are denied sunlight and killed off <ref name="ipc">https://www.cal-ipc.org/plants/profile/hedera-helix-profile/</ref> .  The Common Ivy is a hardy plant with leaves covered in a waxy secretion, making traditional herbicides almost ineffective towards it. Keep all ivy trimmed to prevent its over-spreading.
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The Common Ivy is a well-known invasive species, given the invasive rank of "high" from the [https://www.cal-ipc.org/plants/profile/hedera-helix-profile/ California Invasive Plant Council]. The ivy is known to grow rapidly and take nutrients before other native plants can <ref name="ivy"> https://www.calflora.org/cgi-bin/species_query.cgi?where-calrecnum=4023</ref>. The plant causes no major harm to humans ([https://www.calflora.org/cgi-bin/species_query.cgi?where-calrecnum=4023 minor dermatitis]), but competes with other plants by wrapping around them or growing above them. Saplings and young plants are at a disadvantage especially, because they are denied sunlight and killed off <ref name="ipc">https://www.cal-ipc.org/plants/profile/hedera-helix-profile/</ref> .  The Common Ivy is a hardy plant with leaves covered in a waxy secretion, making traditional herbicides almost ineffective towards it. Keep all ivy trimmed to prevent its over-spreading. See [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:English_ivy_(25563313181).jpg English Ivy here].
  
 
===Spanish Broom (''Spartium junceum'')===
 
===Spanish Broom (''Spartium junceum'')===
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===Barb goatgrass (''Aegilops triuncialis'')===
 
===Barb goatgrass (''Aegilops triuncialis'')===
Barb goatgrass was brought to America from Europe and Asia, and quickly spread in grassy habitats. The grass is known to be a [https://www.cal-ipc.org/plants/paf/aegilops-triuncialis-plant-assessment-form/ noxious weed] and is unpalatable to most livestock. Barb goatgrass is able to spread because it is not being eaten by large livestock, and as it spreads, it creates a monoculture and kills all other plant life in its path <ref name="gg"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegilops_triuncialis</ref>. The seeds of Barb goatgrass can easily be invade other areas by transportation on cars, people, and other animals <ref name="gg"/>. Control measures for the grass include prescribed burns and selective mowing when the grass is still young with no seeds produced. Barb goatgrass, like most grasses, has deep, broad roots; thus, mowing is not always an effective control measure. The only effective control measure is the spraying of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyphosate glyphosate], a common pesticide. The decrease in Barb goatgrass comes at the price of killing all plant life that is sprayed with [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyphosate glyphosate].
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Barb goatgrass was brought to America from Europe and Asia, and quickly spread in grassy habitats. The grass is known to be a [https://www.cal-ipc.org/plants/paf/aegilops-triuncialis-plant-assessment-form/ noxious weed] and is unpalatable to most livestock. Barb goatgrass is able to spread because it is not being eaten by large livestock, and as it spreads, it creates a monoculture and kills all other plant life in its path <ref name="gg"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegilops_triuncialis</ref>. The seeds of Barb goatgrass can easily invade other areas by transportation on cars, people, and other animals <ref name="gg"/>. Control measures for the grass include prescribed burns and selective mowing when the grass is still young with no seeds produced. Barb goatgrass, like most grasses, has deep, broad roots; thus, mowing is not always an effective control measure. The only effective control measure is the spraying of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyphosate glyphosate], a common pesticide. The decrease in Barb goatgrass comes at the price of killing all plant life that is sprayed with [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyphosate glyphosate]. See [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegilops_triuncialis Barb goatgrass here].
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==Fungi (etc.)==
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===Chytrid Fungus (Phylum: Chytridiomycota)===
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Chytrid fungi are a diverse group that likely arose in Asia sometime during the 20th century <ref name="cf"> https://www.the-scientist.com/daily-news/origin-of-frog-killing-chytrid-fungus-found-36616</ref>. The fungi have become widespread in recent years and are infamous for infecting amphibians such as frogs, toads, and salamanders with Chytridiomycosis<ref name="chy"> http://www.amphibianark.org/the-crisis/chytrid-fungus/</ref>. Chytrid fungus infects the amphibians in the water and kills them by thickening the outer layer of skin and stopping [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutaneous_respiration cutaneous respiration]. The fungi spread quickly and efficiently through the water and on equipment such as waders, shoes, nets, and even pets. To prevent the spread of chytrid fungi, clean any gear that has been in the water with [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary_ammonium_cation QUAT] or a household cleaner with ammonium (i.e., [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula_409 409]). To clean pets, be sure to thoroughly wash them. For gear and pets, they must be completely dry before entering the water again to prevent further spread of chytrid fungi. Assume all freshwater has chytrid fungus present and clean gear and pets thoroughly. Report masses of dead amphibians to the [[California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW)|CDFW]].
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===Sudden Oak Death (SOD) (''Phytophthora ramorum'')===
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Sudden oak death (SOD) is a non-native plant pathogen that is believed to have originated in Asia and spread via international nursery trade. <ref>[https://www.nps.gov/redw/learn/nature/sod.htm US National Park Service: Redwood]</ref>. It can infect and cause mortality in coast live oak (''Quercus agrifolia''), California black oak (''Quercus kelloggii''), Shreve oak (''Quercus parvula'' var. ''shrevei''), canyon live oak (''Quercus chrysolepis''), and tanoak (''Lithocarpus densiforus''). Oak species vary in their susceptibility to ''P. ramorum'' infection. Tanoak and coast live oak have poor resistance to infection and experience high mortality rates.<ref>[http://cisr.ucr.edu/sudden_oak_death.html UC Riverside Center for Invasive Species Research]</ref> Over 1 million trees have died due to SOD in Northern and Central California.<ref>[http://cisr.ucr.edu/sudden_oak_death.html UC Riverside Center for Invasive Species Research]</ref>. There is no known cure for SOD.<ref>[http://www.suddenoakdeath.org/diagnosis-and-management/treatments/ California Oak Mortality Task Force]</ref> Current management efforts are focused on curtailing the spread of ''P. Ramorum'' from infected to unaffected regions. For more information refer to [[Sudden Oak Death (SOD)]].
  
 
==Reptiles==
 
==Reptiles==
 
===Red-eared Slider (''Trachemys scripta elegans'')===
 
===Red-eared Slider (''Trachemys scripta elegans'')===
Red-eared slider turtles (RES) are common pets, named for the red stripes on their head near their ears. They have entered local lentic water bodies two ways: 1) escaping captivity and 2) being released by their owners. RES typically invade large ponds and compete with the native aquatic and semi-aquatic vertebrates. The ability for RES to out-compete natives comes from its large size, making it able to claim nesting and basking spaces. RES carry ''Salmonella'', as most reptiles do, which affects the humans who come into contact with the it and the water they reside in <ref name="res"> https://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail.cfm?postnum=11552</ref>. Native pond turtles are affected by parasites and diseases RES carry, which they have no immunity to<ref name="res"/>. Efforts to stop the sale of RES have been implemented since 1975, but because RES has already hybridized with native turtles, their eradication is becoming increasingly difficult. <ref name="res"/> A healthy RES can reach 20 years of age, making them a chronic threat to freshwater ponds. To help in the eradication of RES, report any sightings to the local Park Services or CDFW <ref name="res"/>.
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Red-eared slider turtles (RES) are common pets, named for the red stripes on their head near their ears. They have entered local lentic water bodies two ways: 1) escaping captivity and 2) being released by their owners. RES typically invade large ponds and compete with the native aquatic and semi-aquatic vertebrates. The ability for RES to out-compete natives comes from its large size, making it able to claim nesting and basking spaces. RES carry [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella ''Salmonella''], as most reptiles do, which affects the humans who come into contact with the it and the water they reside in <ref name="res"> https://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail.cfm?postnum=11552</ref>. Native pond turtles are affected by parasites and diseases RES carry, which they have no immunity to<ref name="res"/>. Efforts to stop the sale of RES have been implemented since 1975, but because RES has already hybridized with native turtles, their eradication is becoming increasingly difficult. <ref name="res"/> A healthy RES can reach 20 years of age, making them a chronic threat to freshwater ponds. To help in the eradication of RES, report any sightings to the local Park Services or [[California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW)|CDFW]] <ref name="res"/>. See the [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Red-eared_Slider_(14585091976).jpg Red-eared Slider here].
  
 
===Northern and Southern Watersnakes (''Nerodia sipedon'' and ''Nerodia fasciata'', respectively)===
 
===Northern and Southern Watersnakes (''Nerodia sipedon'' and ''Nerodia fasciata'', respectively)===
These two snakes are amphibious predators that feed on a variety of animals, including: frogs, salamanders, fish, and rodents <ref name="nws"> https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Invasives/Species/Northern-Watersnake</ref><ref name="sws"> https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Invasives/Species/Southern-Watersnake</ref>. Northern Watersnakes are primarily aquatic, seldom hunting outside of lentic water bodies <ref name="nws"/>, while Southern watersnakes hunt aquatic and terrestrial animals <ref name="sws"/>. Northern waternsnakes are mostly found in Northern California <ref name="nws"/>, while Southern Watersnakes have been found in Sacramento, Yolo, and Los Angeles counties <ref name="sws"/>. The two snakes cause large decreases their prey populations, and are also competition for California's endangered native [https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/species/reptiles/giant_garter_snake/index.html giant garder snake]. Southern watersnakes are resistant to brackish water and like their northern counterparts, have voracious appetites <ref name="nws"/><ref name="sws"/>. If these snakes are spotted, their presence should be reported to the CFDW.
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These two snakes are amphibious predators that feed on a variety of animals, including: frogs, salamanders, fish, and rodents <ref name="nws"> https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Invasives/Species/Northern-Watersnake</ref><ref name="sws"> https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Invasives/Species/Southern-Watersnake</ref>. Northern Watersnakes are primarily aquatic, seldom hunting outside of lentic water bodies <ref name="nws"/>, while Southern watersnakes hunt aquatic and terrestrial animals <ref name="sws"/>. Northern Waternsnakes are mostly found in Northern California <ref name="nws"/>, while Southern Watersnakes have been found in Sacramento, Yolo, and Los Angeles counties <ref name="sws"/>. The two snakes cause large decreases their prey populations, and are also competition for California's endangered native [https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/species/reptiles/giant_garter_snake/index.html giant garder snake]. Southern watersnakes are resistant to brackish water and like their northern counterparts, have voracious appetites <ref name="nws"/><ref name="sws"/>. If these snakes are spotted, their presence should be reported to the [[California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW)|CFDW]]. See a [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Northern_Water_Snake_-_Flickr_-_treegrow.jpg Northern Watersnake] and a [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Southern_watersnake_(Nerodia_fasciata)_caught_near_Yuma,_Arizona_(27564086225).jpg Southern Watersnake].
  
 
==Birds==
 
==Birds==
 
===Wild turkey (''Meleagris gallopavo'')===
 
===Wild turkey (''Meleagris gallopavo'')===
Wild turkeys are common across California, specifically in vegetated areas near urbanization. They were first imported in the 1600s for hunting, and again in the 1990s. Turkeys have been in California for many decades, but recently, they have become a concern for local ecosystems because of their ability to compete with native species. It is still under debate whether a turkey is an invasive species, however. Turkeys are considered charismatic birds and enjoyed by many, but because they are large birds that move as a group, they are able to eat more than the smaller native ground birds<ref name="gobble">  https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/california-s-wild-turkey-troubles/</ref>. Some ecologists believe that turkeys out-compete local native birds such as the California Quail, but previous studies found this is incorrect<ref name="quail"> https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/538/MP_ang6_a_200805.pdf.pdf?sequence=1 </ref><ref name="turkeys as bystanders"> https://ag.tennessee.edu/fwf/Documents/CHarper/Do%20wild%20turkeys%20influence%20quail%20or%20grouse%20populations.pdf</ref>. Short-term experiments have shown that quail and turkey share common habitat, but quail prefer to live beside roads, where turkeys prefer to live near large trees where they roost at night <ref name="gobble"/><ref name="quail"/> As adults, turkeys do not have many predators besides humans during the turkey hunting season, but as chicks they are prey for bobcats and other medium sized predators. Turkeys are generalists and have no preference for food; arguably eating whatever they can swallow. This, along with their increase in populations, ''may'' serve as a threat for local ground birds, but is not proven<ref name="gobble"/><ref name="quail"/>.
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Wild turkeys are common across California, specifically in vegetated areas near urbanization. They were first imported in the 1600s for hunting, and again in the 1990s. Turkeys have been in California for many decades, but recently, they have become a concern for local ecosystems because of their ability to compete with native species. It is still under debate whether a turkey is an invasive species, however. Turkeys are considered charismatic birds and enjoyed by many, but because they are large birds that move as a group, they are able to eat more than the smaller native ground birds<ref name="gobble">  https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/california-s-wild-turkey-troubles/</ref>. Some ecologists believe that turkeys out-compete local native birds such as the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_quail California Quail], but previous studies found this is incorrect<ref name="quail"> https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/538/MP_ang6_a_200805.pdf.pdf?sequence=1 </ref><ref name=" turkeys as bystanders"> https://ag.tennessee.edu/fwf/Documents/CHarper/Do%20wild%20turkeys%20influence%20quail%20or%20grouse%20populations.pdf</ref>. Short-term experiments have shown that quail and turkey share common habitat, but quail prefer to live beside roads, where turkeys prefer to live near large trees where they roost at night <ref name="gobble"/><ref name="quail"/> As adults, turkeys do not have many predators besides humans during the turkey hunting season, but as chicks, they are prey for bobcats and other medium-sized predators. Turkeys are generalists and have no preference for food; arguably eating whatever they can swallow. This, along with their increase in populations, ''may'' serve as a threat for local ground birds, but is not proven<ref name="gobble"/><ref name="quail"/>.
  
 
Turkeys are common in wooded areas <ref name="quail"/><ref name="hunt"> https://www.nwtf.org/hunt/wild-turkey-basics/habitat</ref> in Marina, located in the California Central Coast (specifically on Inter-Garrison Road), but avoid highly urbanized areas <ref name="hunt"/> such as the California State University Monterey Bay Campus.
 
Turkeys are common in wooded areas <ref name="quail"/><ref name="hunt"> https://www.nwtf.org/hunt/wild-turkey-basics/habitat</ref> in Marina, located in the California Central Coast (specifically on Inter-Garrison Road), but avoid highly urbanized areas <ref name="hunt"/> such as the California State University Monterey Bay Campus.
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===Parrots and Parakeets (Family ''Psittacidae'')===
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Parrots and Parakeets are seen as exotic pets by many, but they are an invasive species in California when they are released by their owner or escape. Parrots and Parakeets (Psittacids) were brought to America in the late 19th to mid 20th centuries, escaped the pet trade, and created their own small, isolated populations <ref name="history"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feral_parrot</ref>. Psittacids play the niche-stealing role as an invasive species and will compete with native bird species that forage on seeds and fruit<ref name="parr"> https://www.kcet.org/redefine/californias-parrots-pleasure-or-problem</ref>. Native birds outnumber the Psittacids drastically, and as such, ecologists are not concerned with their presence because they are not in large enough numbers to cause food web collapse in native populations <ref name="parr"/>. Psittacids are common in San Francisco, but are not encountered as much in central to Southern California <ref name="parr"/>.
  
 
==Amphibians==
 
==Amphibians==
 
===American bullfrog (''Lithobates catesbeianus'')===
 
===American bullfrog (''Lithobates catesbeianus'')===
Bullfrogs are large amphibians that will eat whatever they can fit in their mouths and out-compete their native counterparts <ref name="bu">https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Invasives/Species/Bullfrog</ref>.  Bullfrogs have voracious appetites, and eat rodents, bats, and other vertebrates, both terrestrial and aquatic<ref name="bu"/>. They were first released into the Western states as a [https://www.fs.fed.us/research/invasive-species/control/biological.php biologic control], but their numbers quickly increased <ref name="bu"/>. These large frogs are also known to be resistant carriers of the [http://www.amphibianark.org/the-crisis/chytrid-fungus/ chytrid fungus] known to infect and kill many other types of amphibians such as native frogs and salamanders. Shorebirds like herons and cranes will eat bullfrogs if they are present, but the frogs emit a painful screech when trapped or harmed, which usually causes their predator to release them. Some native snake venom is ineffective against the bullfrog, making them essentially a species with no predators. Bullfrogs will tolerate cold or hot temperatures by hibernating or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aestivation aestivating] until the temperature suits its preferences <ref name="bu"/>. Report any bullfrog sightings to a local wildlife agency (i.e., CDFW or State Parks).
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Bullfrogs are large amphibians that will eat whatever they can fit in their mouths and out-compete their native counterparts <ref name="bu">https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Invasives/Species/Bullfrog</ref>.  Bullfrogs have voracious appetites, and eat rodents, bats, and other vertebrates, both terrestrial and aquatic<ref name="bu"/>. They were first released into the Western states as a [https://www.fs.fed.us/research/invasive-species/control/biological.php biologic control], but their numbers quickly increased <ref name="bu"/>. These large frogs are also known to be resistant carriers of the [http://www.amphibianark.org/the-crisis/chytrid-fungus/ chytrid fungus] known to infect and kill many other types of amphibians such as native frogs and salamanders. Shorebirds like herons and cranes will eat bullfrogs if they are present, but the frogs emit a painful screech when trapped or harmed, which usually causes their predator to release them. Some native snake venom is ineffective against the bullfrog, making them essentially a species with no predators. Bullfrogs will tolerate cold or hot temperatures by hibernating or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aestivation aestivating] until the temperature suits its preferences <ref name="bu"/>. Report any bullfrog sightings to a local wildlife agency (i.e., [[California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW)|CDFW]] or State Parks). See an [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:American_Bullfrog_(Rana_catesbeiana)_(8741684912).jpg American Bullfrog here].
  
 
==Mammals==
 
==Mammals==
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===Nutria (''Myocastor coypus'')===
 
===Nutria (''Myocastor coypus'')===
Nutria, commonly called ''Coypu'', are large rodents typically seen on the East coast as invasive species, but they were spotted in Merced, California in 2017 <ref name="nut"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coypu</ref>. Nutria can be compared to beavers in that they are semi-aquatic and eat the vegetation in and around water. These large rodents mainly eat grasses and small shrubs that hold wetland soil together. Nutria are [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer ecosystem engineers] known to convert wetlands to open water <ref name="nut"/>. The conversion of wetland habitat to open water not only removes organisms that rely on vegetation to survive, but also destroys habitat for future use. Wetlands are already a shrinking habitat and their conservation is necessary for biodiversity. Report Nutria sightings to the CDFW immediately, as they can cause expensive or irreparable damage <ref name="nut"/>.
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Nutria, commonly called ''Coypu'', are large rodents typically seen on the East coast as invasive species, but they were spotted in Merced, California in 2017 <ref name="nut"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coypu</ref>. Nutria can be compared to beavers in that they are semi-aquatic and eat the vegetation in and around water. These large rodents mainly eat grasses and small shrubs that hold wetland soil together. Nutria are [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer ecosystem engineers] known to convert wetlands to open water <ref name="nut"/>. The conversion of wetland habitat to open water not only removes organisms that rely on vegetation to survive, but also destroys habitat for future use. Wetlands are already a shrinking habitat and their conservation is necessary for biodiversity. Report Nutria sightings to the [[California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW)|CDFW]] immediately, as they can cause expensive or irreparable damage <ref name="nut"/>. See a [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nutria_(Myocastor_coypus)_in_a_partially_frozen_river_Ljubljanica.jpg Nutria here].
  
 
==Insects==
 
==Insects==
 
===The Asian Longhorned Beetle (''Anoplophora glabripennis'')===
 
===The Asian Longhorned Beetle (''Anoplophora glabripennis'')===
The Asian Longhorned Beetle (ALB) is a large, black and white beetle in the family Cerambycidae which bores into and feeds on a variety of hardwood trees <ref name= "alb"> https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/resources/pests-diseases/asian-longhorned-beetle/About-ALB</ref>. Like all beetles, they are capable of flight, but they are more commonly transported as eggs and larvae in imported firewood<ref name="alb"/>. The life cycle of the ALB occurs in the hardwood trees that the mother bores into. When enough ALB lifecycles occur, the tree eventually dies. Adults are present year-round because larvae can overwinter, causing a staggered release of adults into the environment <ref name="alb"/>. ALB are capable of killing entire forests if enough of them are present. <ref name="alb"/> The ways to reduce the spread of ALB are to report their presence to local rangers, buy only locally produced firewood, and do not enter ALB quarantined areas of forests. <ref name="alb"/> The eggs of ALB can be transferred in many ways, including firewood, lumber, and on people, resulting in their potential widespread distribution.  
+
The Asian Longhorned Beetle(ALB) has not been recognized as invasive species in California, but a graduate student from California State University Monterey Bay saw one in Modoc County, California in July of 2018. All states are at risk of ALB infestation.  
  
ALB have not been recognized as invasive species in California, but a graduate student from California State University Monterey Bay saw one in Modoc County, California in July of 2018. All states are at risk of ALB infestation.
+
ALB are large, black and white beetles in the family [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longhorn_beetle Cerambycidae] which bore into and feed on a variety of hardwood trees <ref name= "alb"> https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/resources/pests-diseases/asian-longhorned-beetle/About-ALB</ref>. Like all beetles, they are capable of flight, but they are mostly transported as eggs and larvae in imported firewood<ref name="alb"/>. The life cycle of the ALB occurs in the hardwood trees that the mother bores into. When enough ALB are present in a tree, it will die and the adults find more trees to reproduce in. Adults are present year-round because larvae can overwinter, causing a staggered release of adults into the environment <ref name="alb"/>. ALB are capable of killing entire forests if enough of them are present. <ref name="alb"/> The ways to reduce the spread of ALB are to report their presence to local rangers, buy only locally produced firewood, and do not enter ALB quarantined areas of forests. <ref name="alb"/> The eggs of ALB can be transferred in many ways, including firewood, lumber, and on people, resulting in their potential widespread distribution. If spotted, ALB presence should be reported to the [[California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW)|CDFW]] immediately. See an [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Asian_longhorn_beetle_invasive_species.jpg Asian Longhorned Beetle here].
  
 
===Argentine Ant (''Linepithema humile'')===
 
===Argentine Ant (''Linepithema humile'')===
Line 60: Line 77:
  
 
===Ambrosia Beetles (Curculionidae subfamilies ''Platypodinae'' and ''Scoltyinae'')===
 
===Ambrosia Beetles (Curculionidae subfamilies ''Platypodinae'' and ''Scoltyinae'')===
These beetles are unique weevil subfamilies with a symbiotic relationship with the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosia_fungi Ambrosia fungi]. The beetles and the fungi feed on the inner walls of the tree bark they infest <ref name="amb"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosia_beetle</ref><ref name="fun"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosia_fungi</ref>. These beetles mostly infest dead trees, but they have been recorded infesting stressed and healthy trees. Ambrosia beetles and their fungal symbiotic partners infest non-native trees invading native forets <ref name="amb"/>. Ambrosia beetles have not been recorded to show any threat to native trees, and have little to no negative ecological effects.
+
These unique beetles in two weevil subfamilies with a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiosis symbiotic relationship] with the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosia_fungi Ambrosia fungi]. The beetles and the fungi feed on the inner walls of the tree bark they infest <ref name="amb"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosia_beetle</ref><ref name="fun"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosia_fungi</ref>. These beetles mostly infest dead trees, but they have been recorded infesting stressed and healthy trees. Ambrosia beetles and their fungal symbiotic partners infest non-native trees invading native forests <ref name="amb"/>. Ambrosia beetles have not been recorded to show any threat to native trees, and have little to no negative ecological effects. See an [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Trypodendron_lineatum_lateral.jpg Ambrosia Beetle (''Platypodinae'') here].
 +
 
 +
==Links==
 +
To see more on invasive species in California's Central Coast see:
 +
* [[Invasive Vertebrates of California's Central Coast Region]]
 +
* [[Invasive Invertebrates of California's Central Coast Region]]
 +
* [[Invasive Plants of California's Central Coast Region]]
 +
* [[Invasive Fungi of California's Central Coast Region]]
 +
* [[Sudden Oak Death (SOD)]]
  
 
==References==
 
==References==

Latest revision as of 16:48, 28 March 2020

An environmental summary created by the ENVS 560/L Watershed Systems class at CSUMB.

This is a list of some of the well-known invasive species of California. The intention of this page is to educate the reader on the species' identification, their harm to ecosystems, and how to report sightings. This list does not contain all invasive species found in California. To see more on invasive species in California's Central Coast see specific Central Coast Region pages on: (1) invasive vertebrates, (2) invasive invertebrates, (3) invasive plants, and (4) invasive fungi.

Aquatic Invasive Species

Quagga and Zebra Mussels

Invasive quagga and zebra mussels are a major threat to freshwater ecosystems. They are small bivalves that: reproduce rapidly, deplete nutrients, jeopardize power and water infrastructures, damage ecosystems, and destroy recreational areas. The first confirmed record of Zebra mussels in California occurred at San Justo Reservoir on January 10, 2008[1]. Quagga and zebra mussels continue to spread and have infested 39 water bodies throughout the state. A map of all infested waters can be found here. The Invasive Species Program's goal is to reduce the negative effects of these two species of mussel in the waterways of California. The California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW) is involved in efforts to prevent the introduction of these species into the state, detect and respond to introductions when they occur, and prevent the spread of invasive species that have become established. Boaters are required to have their watercrafts inspected and cleaned at specific check stations around the state. For information on boating restrictions and inspections please contact the waterbody manager directly. [2] See Zebra/Quagga mussels here.

New Zealand Mudsnails (Potamopyrgus antipodarum)

New Zealand Mudsnails (NZMS) were likely introduced in Idaho and brought west from shipments of sportfish and their eggs. They are a vigorous invasive species and are becoming abundant in California's Central Coast. See more information at Invasive Invertebrates of the Central Coast.

Asian Clam (Corbicula fluminea)

Common across the entire country, the Asian Clam has made its way to California's Central Coast. See Invasive Invertebrates of the Central Coast for more information.

Grass Carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella)

Grass Carp are the staple invasive fish in California [3]. In the 1960s, they were used for aquaculture, but were soon released into natural areas [4]. Grass Carp prefer deep, warm water bodies [4]. They have voracious appetites and will readily eat much of the vegetation in lentic water bodies. When the carp remove vegetation from the water bodies, there is less food for native fish, and the increased water clarity encourages algal blooms which can kill everything in the water [4]. Grass Carp also carry Asian tapeworms, which can harm and kill native fish species [5]. Report sightings of the Grass Carp to the CDFW. See a Grass Carp here.

Plants

Giant Reed (Arundo donax)

The Giant Reed was introduced to keep riparian areas stable, but they have become successful invasive species and kill off other plants. See more at Invasive Plants of the Central Coast.

Iceplant (Carpobrotus edulis)

Iceplant was introduced from Africa to help stabilize the soil. It is common in California's Central Coast. See more at Invasive Plants of the Central Coast.

English/Common Ivy (Hedera helix)

The Common Ivy is a well-known invasive species, given the invasive rank of "high" from the California Invasive Plant Council. The ivy is known to grow rapidly and take nutrients before other native plants can [6]. The plant causes no major harm to humans (minor dermatitis), but competes with other plants by wrapping around them or growing above them. Saplings and young plants are at a disadvantage especially, because they are denied sunlight and killed off [7] . The Common Ivy is a hardy plant with leaves covered in a waxy secretion, making traditional herbicides almost ineffective towards it. Keep all ivy trimmed to prevent its over-spreading. See English Ivy here.

Spanish Broom (Spartium junceum)

Spanish Broom is a tall, woody shrub that spreads quickly once it colonizes an area. The rapid colonization prevents native flowers and shrubs from growing [8]. Spanish Broom does not provide nutrients for many organisms, as it consists of mostly dead wood when it is mature. Two species of beetle (Bruchidius villosus and Exapion fuscirostre) have the potential to be used as biological controls to keep Spanish Broom numbers down because they feed on the plant and its seeds. See a Spanish Broom.

Barb goatgrass (Aegilops triuncialis)

Barb goatgrass was brought to America from Europe and Asia, and quickly spread in grassy habitats. The grass is known to be a noxious weed and is unpalatable to most livestock. Barb goatgrass is able to spread because it is not being eaten by large livestock, and as it spreads, it creates a monoculture and kills all other plant life in its path [9]. The seeds of Barb goatgrass can easily invade other areas by transportation on cars, people, and other animals [9]. Control measures for the grass include prescribed burns and selective mowing when the grass is still young with no seeds produced. Barb goatgrass, like most grasses, has deep, broad roots; thus, mowing is not always an effective control measure. The only effective control measure is the spraying of glyphosate, a common pesticide. The decrease in Barb goatgrass comes at the price of killing all plant life that is sprayed with glyphosate. See Barb goatgrass here.

Fungi (etc.)

Chytrid Fungus (Phylum: Chytridiomycota)

Chytrid fungi are a diverse group that likely arose in Asia sometime during the 20th century [10]. The fungi have become widespread in recent years and are infamous for infecting amphibians such as frogs, toads, and salamanders with Chytridiomycosis[11]. Chytrid fungus infects the amphibians in the water and kills them by thickening the outer layer of skin and stopping cutaneous respiration. The fungi spread quickly and efficiently through the water and on equipment such as waders, shoes, nets, and even pets. To prevent the spread of chytrid fungi, clean any gear that has been in the water with QUAT or a household cleaner with ammonium (i.e., 409). To clean pets, be sure to thoroughly wash them. For gear and pets, they must be completely dry before entering the water again to prevent further spread of chytrid fungi. Assume all freshwater has chytrid fungus present and clean gear and pets thoroughly. Report masses of dead amphibians to the CDFW.

Sudden Oak Death (SOD) (Phytophthora ramorum)

Sudden oak death (SOD) is a non-native plant pathogen that is believed to have originated in Asia and spread via international nursery trade. [12]. It can infect and cause mortality in coast live oak (Quercus agrifolia), California black oak (Quercus kelloggii), Shreve oak (Quercus parvula var. shrevei), canyon live oak (Quercus chrysolepis), and tanoak (Lithocarpus densiforus). Oak species vary in their susceptibility to P. ramorum infection. Tanoak and coast live oak have poor resistance to infection and experience high mortality rates.[13] Over 1 million trees have died due to SOD in Northern and Central California.[14]. There is no known cure for SOD.[15] Current management efforts are focused on curtailing the spread of P. Ramorum from infected to unaffected regions. For more information refer to Sudden Oak Death (SOD).

Reptiles

Red-eared Slider (Trachemys scripta elegans)

Red-eared slider turtles (RES) are common pets, named for the red stripes on their head near their ears. They have entered local lentic water bodies two ways: 1) escaping captivity and 2) being released by their owners. RES typically invade large ponds and compete with the native aquatic and semi-aquatic vertebrates. The ability for RES to out-compete natives comes from its large size, making it able to claim nesting and basking spaces. RES carry Salmonella, as most reptiles do, which affects the humans who come into contact with the it and the water they reside in [16]. Native pond turtles are affected by parasites and diseases RES carry, which they have no immunity to[16]. Efforts to stop the sale of RES have been implemented since 1975, but because RES has already hybridized with native turtles, their eradication is becoming increasingly difficult. [16] A healthy RES can reach 20 years of age, making them a chronic threat to freshwater ponds. To help in the eradication of RES, report any sightings to the local Park Services or CDFW [16]. See the Red-eared Slider here.

Northern and Southern Watersnakes (Nerodia sipedon and Nerodia fasciata, respectively)

These two snakes are amphibious predators that feed on a variety of animals, including: frogs, salamanders, fish, and rodents [17][18]. Northern Watersnakes are primarily aquatic, seldom hunting outside of lentic water bodies [17], while Southern watersnakes hunt aquatic and terrestrial animals [18]. Northern Waternsnakes are mostly found in Northern California [17], while Southern Watersnakes have been found in Sacramento, Yolo, and Los Angeles counties [18]. The two snakes cause large decreases their prey populations, and are also competition for California's endangered native giant garder snake. Southern watersnakes are resistant to brackish water and like their northern counterparts, have voracious appetites [17][18]. If these snakes are spotted, their presence should be reported to the CFDW. See a Northern Watersnake and a Southern Watersnake.

Birds

Wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo)

Wild turkeys are common across California, specifically in vegetated areas near urbanization. They were first imported in the 1600s for hunting, and again in the 1990s. Turkeys have been in California for many decades, but recently, they have become a concern for local ecosystems because of their ability to compete with native species. It is still under debate whether a turkey is an invasive species, however. Turkeys are considered charismatic birds and enjoyed by many, but because they are large birds that move as a group, they are able to eat more than the smaller native ground birds[19]. Some ecologists believe that turkeys out-compete local native birds such as the California Quail, but previous studies found this is incorrect[20][21]. Short-term experiments have shown that quail and turkey share common habitat, but quail prefer to live beside roads, where turkeys prefer to live near large trees where they roost at night [19][20] As adults, turkeys do not have many predators besides humans during the turkey hunting season, but as chicks, they are prey for bobcats and other medium-sized predators. Turkeys are generalists and have no preference for food; arguably eating whatever they can swallow. This, along with their increase in populations, may serve as a threat for local ground birds, but is not proven[19][20].

Turkeys are common in wooded areas [20][22] in Marina, located in the California Central Coast (specifically on Inter-Garrison Road), but avoid highly urbanized areas [22] such as the California State University Monterey Bay Campus.

Parrots and Parakeets (Family Psittacidae)

Parrots and Parakeets are seen as exotic pets by many, but they are an invasive species in California when they are released by their owner or escape. Parrots and Parakeets (Psittacids) were brought to America in the late 19th to mid 20th centuries, escaped the pet trade, and created their own small, isolated populations [23]. Psittacids play the niche-stealing role as an invasive species and will compete with native bird species that forage on seeds and fruit[24]. Native birds outnumber the Psittacids drastically, and as such, ecologists are not concerned with their presence because they are not in large enough numbers to cause food web collapse in native populations [24]. Psittacids are common in San Francisco, but are not encountered as much in central to Southern California [24].

Amphibians

American bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus)

Bullfrogs are large amphibians that will eat whatever they can fit in their mouths and out-compete their native counterparts [25]. Bullfrogs have voracious appetites, and eat rodents, bats, and other vertebrates, both terrestrial and aquatic[25]. They were first released into the Western states as a biologic control, but their numbers quickly increased [25]. These large frogs are also known to be resistant carriers of the chytrid fungus known to infect and kill many other types of amphibians such as native frogs and salamanders. Shorebirds like herons and cranes will eat bullfrogs if they are present, but the frogs emit a painful screech when trapped or harmed, which usually causes their predator to release them. Some native snake venom is ineffective against the bullfrog, making them essentially a species with no predators. Bullfrogs will tolerate cold or hot temperatures by hibernating or aestivating until the temperature suits its preferences [25]. Report any bullfrog sightings to a local wildlife agency (i.e., CDFW or State Parks). See an American Bullfrog here.

Mammals

Feral Cats and Dogs (Felis catus and Canis lupus familiaris, respectively)

An overpopulation of domestic cats and dogs invariably leads to portions of these populations to become feral and homeless. Although they are domesticated animals, these mammals do not completely lose their ability to hunt and survive without the help of humans. Feral dogs are mainly found in very urban areas, where they feed on trash and discarded food, and hunt in packs for bigger prey, such as ungulates and other mammals [4]. Feral cats are more infamous for hunting local songbirds, and because they hunt so frequently, many of the songbird populations decline [26]. These hunted populations have the potential to be endangered and threatened species of birds[26]. Domesticated cats also pose a threat to the local bird populations because of their tendency to hunt for enjoyment and their large population (95 million [27]) [26]. Both feral groups are capable of attacking people when provoked or for no apparent reason[4]. Report any dangerous feral cat or dog to the local animal control service.

Nutria (Myocastor coypus)

Nutria, commonly called Coypu, are large rodents typically seen on the East coast as invasive species, but they were spotted in Merced, California in 2017 [28]. Nutria can be compared to beavers in that they are semi-aquatic and eat the vegetation in and around water. These large rodents mainly eat grasses and small shrubs that hold wetland soil together. Nutria are ecosystem engineers known to convert wetlands to open water [28]. The conversion of wetland habitat to open water not only removes organisms that rely on vegetation to survive, but also destroys habitat for future use. Wetlands are already a shrinking habitat and their conservation is necessary for biodiversity. Report Nutria sightings to the CDFW immediately, as they can cause expensive or irreparable damage [28]. See a Nutria here.

Insects

The Asian Longhorned Beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis)

The Asian Longhorned Beetle(ALB) has not been recognized as invasive species in California, but a graduate student from California State University Monterey Bay saw one in Modoc County, California in July of 2018. All states are at risk of ALB infestation.

ALB are large, black and white beetles in the family Cerambycidae which bore into and feed on a variety of hardwood trees [29]. Like all beetles, they are capable of flight, but they are mostly transported as eggs and larvae in imported firewood[29]. The life cycle of the ALB occurs in the hardwood trees that the mother bores into. When enough ALB are present in a tree, it will die and the adults find more trees to reproduce in. Adults are present year-round because larvae can overwinter, causing a staggered release of adults into the environment [29]. ALB are capable of killing entire forests if enough of them are present. [29] The ways to reduce the spread of ALB are to report their presence to local rangers, buy only locally produced firewood, and do not enter ALB quarantined areas of forests. [29] The eggs of ALB can be transferred in many ways, including firewood, lumber, and on people, resulting in their potential widespread distribution. If spotted, ALB presence should be reported to the CDFW immediately. See an Asian Longhorned Beetle here.

Argentine Ant (Linepithema humile)

The Argentine ant is a cosmopolitan invasive species, but is very common in the Central Coast of California because of the Mediterranean climate. See more on Invasive Invertebrates of the Central Coast.

Ambrosia Beetles (Curculionidae subfamilies Platypodinae and Scoltyinae)

These unique beetles in two weevil subfamilies with a symbiotic relationship with the Ambrosia fungi. The beetles and the fungi feed on the inner walls of the tree bark they infest [30][31]. These beetles mostly infest dead trees, but they have been recorded infesting stressed and healthy trees. Ambrosia beetles and their fungal symbiotic partners infest non-native trees invading native forests [30]. Ambrosia beetles have not been recorded to show any threat to native trees, and have little to no negative ecological effects. See an Ambrosia Beetle (Platypodinae) here.

Links

To see more on invasive species in California's Central Coast see:

References

  1. https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/conservation/invasives/quagga-mussels
  2. https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Invasives
  3. https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/conservation/invasives/species
  4. 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Invasives/Species/Grass-Carp
  5. https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.aspx?speciesID=2798
  6. https://www.calflora.org/cgi-bin/species_query.cgi?where-calrecnum=4023
  7. https://www.cal-ipc.org/plants/profile/hedera-helix-profile/
  8. https://www.cal-ipc.org/resources/library/publications/ipcw/report79/
  9. 9.0 9.1 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegilops_triuncialis
  10. https://www.the-scientist.com/daily-news/origin-of-frog-killing-chytrid-fungus-found-36616
  11. http://www.amphibianark.org/the-crisis/chytrid-fungus/
  12. US National Park Service: Redwood
  13. UC Riverside Center for Invasive Species Research
  14. UC Riverside Center for Invasive Species Research
  15. California Oak Mortality Task Force
  16. 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 https://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail.cfm?postnum=11552
  17. 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Invasives/Species/Northern-Watersnake
  18. 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Invasives/Species/Southern-Watersnake
  19. 19.0 19.1 19.2 https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/california-s-wild-turkey-troubles/
  20. 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/538/MP_ang6_a_200805.pdf.pdf?sequence=1
  21. https://ag.tennessee.edu/fwf/Documents/CHarper/Do%20wild%20turkeys%20influence%20quail%20or%20grouse%20populations.pdf
  22. 22.0 22.1 https://www.nwtf.org/hunt/wild-turkey-basics/habitat
  23. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feral_parrot
  24. 24.0 24.1 24.2 https://www.kcet.org/redefine/californias-parrots-pleasure-or-problem
  25. 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Invasives/Species/Bullfrog
  26. 26.0 26.1 26.2 https://abcbirds.org/threat/cats-and-other-invasives/
  27. https://www.statista.com/statistics/198102/cats-in-the-united-states-since-2000/
  28. 28.0 28.1 28.2 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coypu
  29. 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/resources/pests-diseases/asian-longhorned-beetle/About-ALB
  30. 30.0 30.1 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosia_beetle
  31. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosia_fungi

Disclaimer

This page may contain student work completed as part of assigned coursework. It may not be accurate. It does not necessarily reflect the opinion or policy of CSUMB, its staff, or students.